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'King Sigismund in the Court Church of Lucerne, 1417', watercolour drawing from the <i>Luzerner Schilling</i> by Diebold Schilling the Younger (1460-1515), c. 1513.<br/><br/> Sigismund (1368-1437) was the son of Emperor Charles IV and younger brother of King Wenceslaus. He led the last West European Crusade, the Crusade of Nicopolis, in 1396, leading a combined Christian army against the Turks. He was elected as King of Germany in 1411 after the death of King Rupert. He also became King of Bohemia in 1419 and managed to be crowned King of Italy in 1431. Sigismund marched into Rome and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1433.
Conrad I (881-918), also known as Conrad of Germany and Conrad the Younger, was the son of Duke Conrad of Thuringia and a maternal relative of Emperor Arnulf of Carinthia. After conflict with the rival Babenbergian dukes led to the death of his father, Conrad became duke of Franconia.<br/><br/> When King Louis the Child died in 911, Conrad became the first non-Carolingian king of East Francia. Conrad soon found that, since he had been a duke himself, establishing his authority over the dukes became a rather difficult proposition, with the various dukes either making great demands of him or rebelling against his rule at various times.<br/><br/> It was while trying to put down one of his errant dukes, Duke Arnulf of Bavaria, that Conrad received a severe injury which would lead to his death in December 918. On his deathbed Conrad managed to persuade his younger brother Eberhard of Franconia to give the crown to Duke Henry the Fowler of Saxony, believing him to be the only man who could hold East Francia together.
Louis II (825-875), also known as Louis of Italy and Louis the Younger, was the eldest son of Emperor Lothair I, who he co-ruled with until 855, after which he inherited the imperial throne and ruled alone. Louis II was also King of Italy, and governed the kingdom before his ascension to emperor.<br/><br/> When his father died and his lands were divided amongst his sons, Louis was angry that he obtained no territory outside of Italy. Allying himself with his uncle, Louis the German, he fought against his own brother Lothair, King of Lotharingia, as well as his other uncle, King Charles the Bald, in 857. He reconciled with his brother in 858, and received the Kingdom of Provence in 863 after the death of his brother Charles. Louis had to deal with turbulence and chaos in Italy, as well as with Saracens ravaging its southern provinces, procuring the aid of Byzantine emperor Basil.<br/><br/> Louis was betrayed and imprisoned by one of his own nobles, Adelchis, Prince of Benevento, in 871, but was freed a month later due to fresh Saracen incursions. He unsuccessfully tried to punish Adelchis for his imprisonment, but had better luck against the Saracens. He eventually died in 875, naming his cousin Carloman as his successor.
Louis II (825-875), also known as Louis of Italy and Louis the Younger, was the eldest son of Emperor Lothair I, who he co-ruled with until 855, after which he inherited the imperial throne and ruled alone. Louis II was also King of Italy, and governed the kingdom before his ascension to emperor.<br/><br/> When his father died and his lands were divided amongst his sons, Louis was angry that he obtained no territory outside of Italy. Allying himself with his uncle, Louis the German, he fought against his own brother Lothair, King of Lotharingia, as well as his other uncle, King Charles the Bald, in 857. He reconciled with his brother in 858, and received the Kingdom of Provence in 863 after the death of his brother Charles. Louis had to deal with turbulence and chaos in Italy, as well as with Saracens ravaging its southern provinces, procuring the aid of Byzantine emperor Basil.<br/><br/> Louis was betrayed and imprisoned by one of his own nobles, Adelchis, Prince of Benevento, in 871, but was freed a month later due to fresh Saracen incursions. He unsuccessfully tried to punish Adelchis for his imprisonment, but had better luck against the Saracens. He eventually died in 875, naming his cousin Carloman as his successor.
Theodosius II (401-450), also known as Theodosius the Younger and Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the son of Emperor Arcadius of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was proclaimed co-ruler and Augustus a year after his birth, becoming the youngest person to ever bear the title. He became emperor after his father's death in 408 CE, aged only seven.<br/><br/> His older sister Pulcheria briefly assumed regency as Augusta until Theodosius was old enough in 416 CE. Theodosius was a devout Christian, waging wars against the Sassanids and others who persecuted Christianity. He also had to deal with the Huns under Attila, forced to constantly pay them off to maintain peace.<br/><br/> Theodosius was also known for promulgating the Theodosian law code and for his founding of the University of Constantinople. Theodosius eventually died in 450 CE from a riding accident, leading to a power struggle between his sister Pulcheria and the eunuch Chrysaphius.
Philip II (238-249), also known as Philippus II and Philip the Younger, was the son and heir to Emperor Philip I, or Philip the Arab. When Philip I became emperor in 244, Philip II was appointed Caesar, and served as consul in 247. His father eventually elevated him to Augustus and co-emperor some time later.<br/><br/> Philip I was killed in battle with rival claimant Decius in 249, and when news of his death reached Rome the Praetorian Guard murdered Philip II. It was said that he died in his mother's arms, aged only eleven.
Theodosius II (401-450), also known as Theodosius the Younger and Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the son of Emperor Arcadius of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was proclaimed co-ruler and Augustus a year after his birth, becoming the youngest person to ever bear the title. He became emperor after his father's death in 408 CE, aged only seven.<br/><br/> His older sister Pulcheria briefly assumed regency as Augusta until Theodosius was old enough in 416 CE. Theodosius was a devout Christian, waging wars against the Sassanids and others who persecuted Christianity. He also had to deal with the Huns under Attila, forced to constantly pay them off to maintain peace.<br/><br/> Theodosius was also known for promulgating the Theodosian law code and for his founding of the University of Constantinople. Theodosius eventually died in 450 CE from a riding accident, leading to a power struggle between his sister Pulcheria and the eunuch Chrysaphius.
Gaius Julius Verus Maximus (217/220-238), sometimes known incorrectly as Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus or Maximinus the Younger, was the son of Thraco-Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax. Maximus was appointed as Caesar in 236, but held little real power until he was murdered alongside his father in 238 by the Praetorian Guard, during the Siege of Aquileia.
Theodosius II (401-450), also known as Theodosius the Younger and Theodosius the Calligrapher, was the son of Emperor Arcadius of the Eastern Roman Empire. He was proclaimed co-ruler and Augustus a year after his birth, becoming the youngest person to ever bear the title. He became emperor after his father's death in 408 CE, aged only seven.<br/><br/> His older sister Pulcheria briefly assumed regency as Augusta until Theodosius was old enough in 416 CE. Theodosius was a devout Christian, waging wars against the Sassanids and others who persecuted Christianity. He also had to deal with the Huns under Attila, forced to constantly pay them off to maintain peace.<br/><br/> Theodosius was also known for promulgating the Theodosian law code and for his founding of the University of Constantinople. Theodosius eventually died in 450 CE from a riding accident, leading to a power struggle between his sister Pulcheria and the eunuch Chrysaphius.
The largest Roman imperial cameo to have survived, the Great Cameo of France is engraved with fwenty-four figures from the Julio-Claudian dynasty.</br/><br/> The upper levels of the cameo show deceased and/or deified members of the dynasty, such as Divus Augustus (Augustus Caesar), Drusus the Younger (son of Tiberius Caesar) and Drusus the Elder (brother of Tiberius Caesar). The middle tier shows Tiberius Caesar alongside his mother Livia Drusilla (wife of Augustus Caesar) and his designated heir Germanicus. Behind Tiberius and Livius are Claudius Caesar (who was emperor when the cameo was made) and his fourth wife Agrippina the Younger.
Jane Seymour (c. 1508 – 24 October 1537) was Queen of England from 1536 to 1537 as the third wife of King Henry VIII. She succeeded Anne Boleyn as queen consort following the latter's execution for high treason, incest and adultery in May 1536. She died of postnatal complications less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, a son who reigned as King Edward VI.<br/><br/> She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral, and his only consort to be buried beside him in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. She was the only wife of Henry VIII whose son survived infancy.
Hans Holbein the Younger (c. 1497 – 1543) was a German and Swiss artist and printmaker who worked in a Northern Renaissance style. He is best known as one of the greatest portraitists of the 16th century. He also produced religious art, satire, and Reformation propaganda, and made a significant contribution to the history of book design. He is called 'the Younger' to distinguish him from his father, Hans Holbein the Elder, an accomplished painter of the Late Gothic school.<br/><br/> The Self Portrait is a small drawing by the German Renaissance artist and printmaker Hans Holbein the Younger, completed around 1542-1543, and housed in the Uffizi, Florence. The gold background was added later by a different artist. According to art historian John Rowlands, 'Although this drawing has been enlarged on all sides and heavily reworked, enough of it still shows to allow the assumption that the original work was executed by Holbein. The inscription, also a later addition, evidently records an even earlier one, of which slight traces remain'.
George Adams, the Younger (1750 - 1795), son of George Adams (c. 1709 - 1773), was the author of a number of influential scientific works, including <i>Essays on the Microscope</i>, <i>Astronomical and Geographical Essays</i> and <i>Lectures on Natural and Experimental Philosophy</i>. He was also a globe maker.
This is one of a celebrated series of small woodcuts that Holbein designed on the theme of Death. In the words of Christian Rümelin: 'Death is depicted in several guises in these illustrations, ranging from the murderous agent (of the monk, merchant, chandler, rich man, knight, earl and nobleman) to the warning commentator (of the pope, emperor, cardinal, judge, alderman, lawyer, and preacher)'.<br/><br/> Members of society are mostly portrayed in a situation designed to criticise a specific type of behaviour 'such as the corruption of the judge, the vanity of the canon, the acquisitiveness of the rich man and the merchant'. The series adapts the tradition of the medieval Danse Macabre (Dance of Death) as the basis for a new and original sequence. It also relates to the imagery of French illuminated Books of Hours and poetical traditions. 'The scenes are the customary illustrations in which Death appears in the form of a skeleton'.
Catherine of Aragon (Castilian: Catalina; also spelled Katherine of Aragon, 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the Queen of England from June 1509 until May 1533 as the first wife of King Henry VIII; she was previously Princess of Wales as the wife of Prince Arthur.<br/><br/> The daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Prince Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, and Arthur died five months later. In 1507, she held the position of ambassador for the Spanish Court in England, becoming the first female ambassador in European history. Catherine subsequently married Arthur's younger brother, the recently succeeded Henry VIII, in 1509.<br/><br/> She died at Kimbolton Castle on 7 January 1536.
Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was Lord, and later assumed the Kingship, of Ireland, and continued the nominal claim by English monarchs to the Kingdom of France.<br/><br/> Henry was the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty, succeeding his father, Henry VII.
Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex, KG (c. 1485 – 28 July 1540), was an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540.<br/><br/> Cromwell was one of the strongest and most powerful advocates of the English Reformation. He helped to engineer an annulment of the king's marriage to Queen Catherine of Aragon to allow Henry to marry his mistress Anne Boleyn. After failing in 1534 to obtain the Pope's approval of the request for annulment, Parliament endorsed the King's claim to be head of the breakaway Church of England, thus giving Henry the authority to annul his own marriage. Cromwell subsequently plotted an evangelical, reformist course for the embryonic Church of England from the unique posts of vicegerent in spirituals and vicar-general.<br/><br/> During his rise to power, Cromwell made many enemies, including his former ally Anne Boleyn; he played a prominent role in her downfall. He later fell from power after arranging the King's marriage to a German princess, Anne of Cleves. Cromwell hoped that the marriage would breathe fresh life into the Reformation in England, but because Henry found his new bride unattractive, it turned into a disaster for Cromwell and ended in an annulment six months later. Cromwell was arraigned under a bill of attainder and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540. The King later expressed regret at the loss of his chief minister.
Catherine Howard (c.1521 – 13 February 1542) was Queen of England from 1540 until 1541, as the fifth wife of Henry VIII. Catherine married Henry VIII on 28 July 1540, at Oatlands Palace, in Surrey, almost immediately after the annulment of his marriage to Anne of Cleves was arranged.<br/><br/> Catherine was beheaded after less than two years of marriage to Henry on the grounds of treason by committing adultery while married to the King.
Gaius Julius Verus Maximus (217/220 - 238), sometimes known incorrectly as Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus or Maximinus the Younger, was the son of Thraco-Roman Emperor Maximinus Thrax. Maximus was appointed as Caesar in 236, but held little real power until he was murdered alongside his father in 238 by the Praetorian Guard, during the Siege of Aquileia.
Dancing mania (also known as dancing plague, choreomania, St John's Dance and, historically, St. Vitus' Dance) was a social phenomenon that occurred primarily in mainland Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. It involved groups of people dancing erratically, sometimes thousands at a time.<br/><br/> The mania affected men, women, and children, who danced until they collapsed from exhaustion. One of the first major outbreaks was in Aachen, Germany, in 1374, and it quickly spread throughout Europe; one particularly notable outbreak occurred in Strasbourg in 1518, France.<br/><br/> Affecting thousands of people across several centuries, dancing mania was not an isolated event, and was well documented in contemporary reports. It was nevertheless poorly understood, and remedies were based on guesswork. Generally, musicians accompanied dancers, to help ward off the mania, but this tactic sometimes backfired by encouraging more to join in. There is no consensus among modern-day scholars as to the cause of dancing mania.
Philip II (238-249), also known as Philippus II and Philip the Younger, was the son and heir to Emperor Philip I, or Philip the Arab. When Philip I became emperor in 244, Philip II was appointed Caesar, and served as consul in 247. His father eventually elevated him to Augustus and co-emperor some time later.<br/><br/> Philip I was killed in battle with rival claimant Decius in 249, and when news of his death reached Rome the Praetorian Guard murdered Philip II. It was said that he died in his mother's arms, aged only eleven.
This is one of a celebrated series of small woodcuts that Holbein designed on the theme of Death. In the words of Christian Rümelin: 'Death is depicted in several guises in these illustrations, ranging from the murderous agent (of the monk, merchant, chandler, rich man, knight, earl and nobleman) to the warning commentator (of the pope, emperor, cardinal, judge, alderman, lawyer, and preacher)'.<br/><br/> Members of society are mostly portrayed in a situation designed to criticise a specific type of behaviour 'such as the corruption of the judge, the vanity of the canon, the acquisitiveness of the rich man and the merchant'. The series adapts the tradition of the medieval Danse Macabre (Dance of Death) as the basis for a new and original sequence. It also relates to the imagery of French illuminated Books of Hours and poetical traditions. 'The scenes are the customary illustrations in which Death appears in the form of a skeleton'.
Anne of Cleves (German: Anna; 22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was Queen of England from 6 January 1540 to 9 July 1540 as the fourth wife of King Henry VIII. The marriage was declared never consummated and, as a result, she was not crowned queen consort.<br/><br/> Following the annulment of their marriage, Anne was given a generous settlement by the King, and thereafter referred to as the King's Beloved Sister. She lived to see the coronation of Queen Mary I, outliving the rest of Henry's wives.
Brueghel's satirical comment reflects the collapse of 'Tulipomania' in the 1640s. In the painting, speculators are depicted as brainless monkeys in contemporary upper-class dress. In a commentary on the economic folly of Tulipomania, one monkey urinates on the previously valuable plants, others appear in debtor's court and one is carried away to the grave.<br/><br/> Tulip mania or tulipomania (Dutch names include: tulpenmanie, tulpomanie, tulpenwoede, tulpengekte and bollengekte) was a period in the Dutch Golden Age during which contract prices for bulbs of the recently introduced tulip reached extraordinarily high levels and then suddenly collapsed.<br/><br/> At the peak of tulip mania, in February 1637, some single tulip bulbs sold for more than 10 times the annual income of a skilled craftsman.
Brueghel's satirical comment reflects the collapse of 'Tulipomania' in the 1640s. In the painting, speculators are depicted as brainless monkeys in contemporary upper-class dress. In a commentary on the economic folly of Tulipomania, one monkey urinates on the previously valuable plants, others appear in debtor's court and one is carried away to the grave.<br/><br/> Tulip mania or tulipomania (Dutch names include: tulpenmanie, tulpomanie, tulpenwoede, tulpengekte and bollengekte) was a period in the Dutch Golden Age during which contract prices for bulbs of the recently introduced tulip reached extraordinarily high levels and then suddenly collapsed.<br/><br/> At the peak of tulip mania, in February 1637, some single tulip bulbs sold for more than 10 times the annual income of a skilled craftsman.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
The Tower of Babel (Hebrew: מגדל בבל‎ Migdal Bavel Arabic: برج بابل‎ Burj Babil), according to the Book of Genesis, was an enormous tower built in the plain of Shinar (Hebrew: שנער‎).<br/><br/> According to the biblical account, a united humanity of the generations following the Great Flood, speaking a single language and migrating from the east, came to the land of Shinar, where they resolved to build a city with a tower 'with its top in the heavens...lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the Earth'. God came down to see what they did and said: 'They are one people and have one language, and nothing will be withholden from them which they purpose to do'. So God said, 'Come, let us go down and confound their speech'. And so God scattered them upon the face of the Earth, and confused their languages, and they left off building the city, which was called Babel 'because God there confounded the language of all the Earth'.(Genesis 11:5-8).<br/><br/> The Tower of Babel has often been associated with known structures, notably the Etemenanki, a ziggurat dedicated to Marduk by Nabopolassar (c. 610 BC). The Great Ziggurat of Babylon base was square (not round), 91 metres (300 ft) in height, but demolished by Alexander the Great. A Sumerian story with some similar elements is preserved in Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta.
This is one of a celebrated series of small woodcuts that Holbein designed on the theme of Death. In the words of Christian Rümelin: 'Death is depicted in several guises in these illustrations, ranging from the murderous agent (of the monk, merchant, chandler, rich man, knight, earl and nobleman) to the warning commentator (of the pope, emperor, cardinal, judge, alderman, lawyer, and preacher)'.<br/><br/> Members of society are mostly portrayed in a situation designed to criticise a specific type of behaviour 'such as the corruption of the judge, the vanity of the canon, the acquisitiveness of the rich man and the merchant'. The series adapts the tradition of the medieval Danse Macabre (Dance of Death) as the basis for a new and original sequence. It also relates to the imagery of French illuminated Books of Hours and poetical traditions. 'The scenes are the customary illustrations in which Death appears in the form of a skeleton'.
Valerian (Latin: Publius Licinius Valerianus Augustus; 193/195/200 – 260 or 264 CE), also known as Valerian the Elder, was Roman Emperor from 253 to 260. He was taken captive by Persian king Shapur I after the Battle of Edessa, becoming the only Roman emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war and causing wide-ranging instability across the empire.<br/><br/> At the beginning of 260, Valerian was decisively defeated in the Battle of Edessa and he arranged a meeting with Shapur to negotiate a peace settlement. The truce was betrayed by Shapur who seized him and held him prisoner for the remainder of his life.
Writing essays in vernacular Chinese for the influential magazine La Jeunesse, Zhou was a key figure in the May Fourth Movement. He was an advocate of literary reform, and called for literary reform. In a 1918 article, he called for a 'humanist literature' in which 'any custom or rule that goes against human instincts and nature should be rejected or rectified'. As examples, he cited children sacrificing themselves for their parents and wives being buried alive to accompany their dead husbands. Zhou's ideal literature was both democratic and individualistic. On the other hand, Zhou made a distinction between 'democratic' and 'popular' literature. Common people may understand the latter, but not the former. This implies a difference between common people and the elite.<br/><br/> His short essays, with their refreshing style, have won him many readers since then up to the present day. An avid reader, he called his studies 'miscellanies', and penned an essay title 'My Miscellaneous Studies'. He was particularly interested in folklore, anthropology and natural history. He was also a prolific translator, producing translations of classical Greek and classical Japanese literature. Most of his translations are pioneering, which include a collection of Greek mimes, Sappho's lyrics, Euripides' tragedies, Kojiki, Shikitei Sanba's Ukiyoburo, Sei Shōnagon's Makura no Sōshi and a collection of Kyogen. He considered his translation of Lucian's Dialogues, which he finished late in his life, as his greatest literary achievement. He was also the first one to translate (from English) the story Ali Baba into Chinese (known as Xianü Nu). He became chancellor of Beijing University in 1939.
Ohatsu or Ohatsu-no-kata (1570–September 30, 1633) was a prominently placed figure in the late Sengoku period. In 1587 she married Kyōgoku Takatsugu, a daimyo in Omi province, holding Ōtsu castle for the Toyotomi clan. After her husband's death in 1609, Ohatsu remained active in the political intrigues of her day. Ohatsu's close family ties to both the Toyotomi clan and the Tokugawa clan uniquely positioned her to serve as a conduit between the rivals. She acted as a liaison until 1615, when the Tokugawa eliminated the Toyotomi.
Ohatsu or Ohatsu-no-kata (1570–September 30, 1633) was a prominently placed figure in the late Sengoku period. In 1587 she married Kyōgoku Takatsugu, a daimyo in Omi province, holding Ōtsu castle for the Toyotomi clan. After her husband's death in 1609, Ohatsu remained active in the political intrigues of her day. Ohatsu's close family ties to both the Toyotomi clan and the Tokugawa clan uniquely positioned her to serve as a conduit between the rivals. She acted as a liaison until 1615, when the Tokugawa eliminated the Toyotomi.
The Nuremberg Chronicle is an illustrated world history. Its structure follows the story of human history as related in the Bible; it includes the histories of a number of important Western cities. Written in Latin by Hartmann Schedel, with a version in German translation by Georg Alt, it appeared in 1493. It is one of the best-documented early printed books - an incunabulum (printed, not hand-written) - and one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text.
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen regnant of England and Queen regnant of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth I's foreign policy with regard to Asia, Africa and Latin America demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. Her reign saw major innovations in exploration, colonization and the use of England's growing maritime power.
The Eight Immortals (Chinese: Baxian; Pa-hsien) are a group of legendary 'xian' (immortals; transcendents; fairies) in Chinese mythology. Each Immortal's power can give life or destroy evil. Most of them are said to have been born in the Tang Dynasty or Song Dynasty. They are revered in Daoism (Taoism) and are also a popular element in secular Chinese culture. They are said to live on a group of five islands in the Bohai Sea which includes Penglai Mountain-Island. The Immortals are:<br/><br/> 1. Immortal Woman He (He Xiangu)<br/><br/> 2. Royal Uncle Cao (Cao Guojiu)<br/><br/> 3. Iron-Crutch Li (Tieguai Li)<br/><br/> 4. Lan Caihe<br/><br/> 5. Lu Dongbin, (leader) 6. Philosopher Han Xiang (Han Xiang Zi)<br/><br/> 7. Elder Zhang Guo (Zhang Guo Lao)<br/><br/> 8. Han Zhongli (Zhongli Quan)<br/><br/> In literature before the 1970s, they were sometimes translated as the Eight Genies. First described in the Yuan Dynasty, they were probably named after the Eight Immortal Scholars of the Han.
Oeyo, Gō, or Satoko (1573 – September 15, 1626) was a prominently-placed female figure in the late Sengoku period. She married three times and her third and last husband Tokugawa Hidetada become the second Tokugawa shogun. She was also the mother of his successor Iemitsu, the third shogun. Oeyo, also known as Ogo, was the third and youngest daughter of the Sengoku period daimyo Azai Nagamasa. Her mother, Oichi was the younger sister of Oda Nobunaga.<br/><br/> Toyotomi Hideyoshi became the adoptive father and protector of Oeyo in the period before her marriage. Oeyo's oldest sister, styled Yodo-dono, Cha-Chaby birth name, was a prominent concubine of Hideyoshi and gave birth to his heir, Toyotomi Hideyori. Oeyo's middle sister, Ohatsu was the wife of Kyōgoku Takatsugu and the mother of Kyōgoku Tadataka. After Hidetada resigned the government to his eldest son in 1623, Oeyo took a Buddhist name, Sūgen'in or Sogenin. Her mausoleum can be found at Zōjō-ji in the Shiba neighborhood of Tokyo.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
Oriental carpets more than two centuries old have rarely survived and are rarely represented in Islamic Art since Sunni Islam (and to a lesser extent Shia) eschews representational art in favour of precisely the repetetive geometric symbols and arabesques found, for example, in oriental carpets.<br/><br/> This means that most examples of 17th century and earlier oriental carpets, mainly produced in Muslim lands, are only to be found in paintings from Christian lands where rich oriental carpets were associated with wealth, power and taste.<br/><br/> Such carpets featured as an important decorative feature in paintings from the 14th century onwards, leading to the dichotomy that there are more depictions of oriental carpets produced before the 17th century in European paintings than there are actual oriental carpets surviving from the same period.<br/><br/> Because of this European paintings have proved an invaluable source of reference for the study of the history of carpetmaking and carpets.
The Nuremberg Chronicle is an illustrated world history. Its structure follows the story of human history as related in the Bible; it includes the histories of a number of important Western cities. Written in Latin by Hartmann Schedel, with a version in German translation by Georg Alt, it appeared in 1493. It is one of the best-documented early printed books. It is classified as an incunabulum – that is, a book, pamphlet, or broadside that was printed (not handwritten) before the year 1501 in Europe. It is also one of the first to successfully integrate illustrations and text.<br/><br/> Latin scholars refer to it as Liber Chronicarum (Book of Chronicles) as this phrase appears in the index introduction of the Latin edition. English speakers have long referred to it as the Nuremberg Chronicle after the city in which it was published. German speakers refer to it as Die Schedelsche Weltchronik (Schedel's World History) in honour of its author. The illustrations in many copies were hand-coloured after printing.